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Öğe Criticism of the neo-classical salafi understanding forming the discourse of religious exclusivism an evaluation on the specifics of the critiques aimed at fakhr al-din al-razi regarding the epistemological value of language(International ILEM Summer School - İlmi Etüdler Derneği, 2021) Cengiz, MehdiAl-Razi stated that specific criteria should exist for interpreting religious texts, with one of the two in particular prioritizing the conflict of 'aql [reason] and naql [revelation]. Accordingly, he developed the theory of the hypothetical nature of linguistic evidence. According to al-Razi's theory, literary evidence have been exposed to possible errors from transferring al-nahw [lexicography, morphology, and grammar] rules to the present day; different linguistic possibilities such as figurative speech homonymy and transfer of meanings (naql al-lugha) are likely to have occurred in the process. Therefore, religious texts do not express certainty when qarinas [contextual clues] are absent. Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, leading names in the neo-classical Salafi understanding, described the view that literal evidence does not express 'ilm [definitive knowledge] but rather expresses Uann [speculative knowledge] as taghut [an idol], criticizing it to have a marginalizing and exclusionary style. The present article will examine the discourse of religious exclusivism produced within the framework of the hypotheticality of language and will show that this discourse is caused by Ibn Taymiyya's and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya's words being misunderstood. This study will first explain what is meant by religious exclusion and provide the intellectual background of the theory of the hypotheticality of language. Next, it will cover Ibn Taymiyya's and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya's questioning of al-Razi's religiosity, and finish with how the accusations against Razi had stemmed from a misunderstanding of his ideas.Öğe Fakhr al-Din al-Razi in the conceptualization process of al-Mushakala (verbal similarity)(Sakarya Üniv, 2021) Cengiz, MehdiFakhr al-D?n al-R?z? (d. 606/1210), one of the 12th century thinkers, who is known for his works in the field of al-kal?m (Islamic theology), philosophy and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), wrote a work called Nih?yat al-?j?z f? dir?yat al-i?j?z on the ?ilm al bel?gha (science of eloquence) consisting of the sciences of ?ilm al-bay?n (the science of clarity of language), ?ilm al-ma??n? (the science of meanings) and ?ilm al-bad?? (the science of ornamentation). al-R?z?, who did not include the art of al-Mush?kala (lexical simulation), which is defined as stating a word (laf?) by the form of another (word) in that book, used this art extensively in his tafs?r called Mef?t??u'l-?ayb. However, since al-Mush?kala was not yet termed in his time, he mentioned this art with different names. In fact, he did not explain while interpreting the verses and referred to another verse mentioned before. Since al-R?z?’s thoughts about al-Mush?kala could not be determined exactly and his statements were misunderstood, the subject of our study is the extraction of general rule from the small materials that al-R?z? mentions about the art of al-Mush?kala. In this direction, the conceptual framework of the art of al-Mush?kala will be included in the introduction of the article. In the first part, the nature of the art of al-Mush?kala according to al-R?z? will be explained, and in the second part, it will be discussed whether this art is a metaphor or a reality for himÖğe From an ode to dozens of new works: the tahmises, Mu 'arazas (Imitatio) and tastirs to Lamiyat al-ajam of al-Tughrai(Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Merkezi, 2021) Cengiz, MehdiClerk of Seljuk state Mueyyiduddin al-Tughr??’s ode named L?miyat Al-Ajam, one of the important poets of the 12th century, influenced the literary world with its rich content and remarkable style. In this context, it should be stated that L?miyat Al-Ajam formed a ground for the works such as tahm?s and mu?raza written by other poets. In this study, the tahm?s and mu?razas written to L?miyat Al-Ajam will be examined and the influence of al-Tughr?? on the poets after him will be revealed. In addition, this article aims to show the methods of producing poetry in classical Arabic literature and the relationship between the work of the ground poet and other poets. By examining the studies aimed at creating new texts such as tahm?s and mu?raza, a more comprehensive assessment can be made about the methods of writing in the Islamic thought tradition.Öğe Is not it possible to question ancient arabic poetry?: An evaluation of the canonization of jahiliyya poetry(Ankara Üniv, 2021) Cengiz, MehdiIn order to express his feelings, the poet goes out of the standard language and abandons common usage. The number of dispositions was limited to avoid breaking the language rules, and the main criterion in this subject was set the ancient 'Arab poets. While the use of language by the ancient 'Arab poets against the rules was accepted as a necessity of verse, the dispositions of the later periods' poets were described as errors. This idea, which considers the use of language by Jahiliyyah poets as infallible has been largely accepted. Thus, the poetry of Jahiliyyah has become canonized and unquestionable over time. In this study, which discusses whether ancient Arabic poets made mistakes in using the language, it will be noted that the poets of the Jahiliyyah use a language contrary to standard rules and it will be suggested that they are lahn.Öğe Is not it possible to question ancient Arabic poetry?: An evaluation of the canonization of jahiliyya poetry(ATATURK UNIV, 2021) Cengiz, MehdiIn order to express his feelings, the poet goes out of the standard language and abandons common usage. The number of dispositions was limited to avoid breaking the language rules, and the main criterion in this subject was set the ancient 'Arab poets. While the use of language by the ancient 'Arab poets against the rules was accepted as a necessity of verse, the dispositions of the later periods' poets were described as errors. This idea, which considers the use of language by Jahiliyyah poets as infallible has been largely accepted. Thus, the poetry of Jahiliyyah has become canonized and unquestionable over time. In this study, which discusses whether ancient Arabic poets made mistakes in using the language, it will be noted that the poets of the Jahiliyyah use a language contrary to standard rules and it will be suggested that they are lahn.Öğe Kelâm - felsefe etkileşimi bağlamında Şemseddîn es-Semerkandî’de dış ve iç duyular(Hitit Üniversitesi, 2022) Cengiz, Mehdiİslam dünyası, sınırlarının genişlemesine paralel olarak felsefe gibi farklı düşünce sistemleri ile karşılaşmış ve başta kelâm olmak üzere pek çok disiplin bundan etkilenmiştir. Klasik felsefenin bir bölümü olan mantık disiplininin İslam dünyasına girmesi ile beraber kelâm ve fıkıh usûlü disiplinleri ile felsefe arasında bir etkileşim yaşanmaya başlamıştır. Bu etkileşimi göstermesi açısından felsefe ve kelâm düşünce geleneklerinin tartışma konuları arasında yer alan dış ve iç duyular ayrımı, önemli bir örnektir. İbn Sînâ (ö. 428/1037) bilginin oluşum aşamaları hakkında kendisine tevârüs eden felsefî bilgiyi, dış ve iç duyuların sayısı ile mahiyeti konusunda değişiklikler yaparak revize etmiştir. Yaptığı bu değişiklik, duyular probleminin daha geniş bir alanda tartışılmasına yol açmış ve bilginin oluşum aşamalarına ilişkin tartışmalarda İbn Sînâ’nın önemli bir referans kaynağı olmasını sağlamıştır. Diğer yandan Fahreddin er-Râzî (ö. 606/1210) gibi düşünürler, İbn Sînâ’nın geliştirdiği duyular teorisini, kendi düşünce sistemlerine uygun olmadığı gerekçesiyle tenkit etmiştir. Kelâm ve felsefe ekollerine mensup düşünürlerin ihtilaf ettiği konular arasında yer alan iç duyuları, İslâm filozofları kabul ederken kelâm âlimleri genellikle kabul etmemiştir. Bu çerçevede Semerkandî’nin (ö. 722/1322) konu hakkındaki görüşleri, felsefe ve kelâm disiplinlerinin ilişkisini göstermesi açısından önemli bir yer tutar. Semerkandî klasik dönem kelâmcılarının aksine İbn Sînâ’nin iç ve dış duyu ayrımını benimsemiş ve yazdığı kelâm eserlerinde iç duyular konusunu İbn Sînâcı perspektifle ele almıştır. Klasik kelâm düşünce geleneğinde bilginin kaynakları sadece dış duyular, haber-i sâdık ve akıl iken Semerkandî’nin yaklaşımına göre dış duyuların bilgi edinme sürecini tamamlayabilmeleri için iç duyulara ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Nefis terbiyesi ile güçlenen insan nefsinin, duyular olmadan da bilgi edinebileceğini ifade eden Semerkandî’ye göre yetkin olmayan nefisler, dış dünyadaki nesnelerin bilgisini elde edebilmek için dış ve iç duyulara ihtiyaç duyar. Dış duyular olarak adlandırılan beş duyu organının elde ettiği suretler, iç duyulara aktarılarak bilginin oluşum süreci devam eder. Semerkandî, İbn Sînâ gibi iç duyuları (havass-ı hamse-i bâtine); ortak duyu (hiss-i müşterek), hayal (musavvire), vehim, yetkin duyu (mutasarrıf müdrik) ve hafızadan (zâkire) olmak üzere beş kısımda inceler. Bahse konu olan iç duyular Semerkandî’ye göre psikolojik değil, nöro-fizyolojiktir. Bu nedenle iç duyuların beyindeki yerlerini belirlemeye çalışan Semerkandî, yaptığı tespitlerin doğruluğunu ispat etmek için ilgili yerlerin zarar görmesini ve bunun sonucunda idrak yetilerinde meydana gelen işlev eksikliğini kullanır. Bu çalışma ile Semerkandî’nin, felsefenin konusu olan iç duyular teorisini, kelâm ile ilişkilendirip kelâm disiplininin konuları arasında değerlendirdiği ve bu meselede İbn Sînâ’dan etkilendiği gösterilecektir. Böylece çalışmada iki disiplinin etkileşimi ve bu etkileşimin boyutları ile ilgili literatürdeki önemli bir boşluğun doldurulması amaçlanmaktadır. Konu hakkında daha önce bazı akademik çalışmalar yapılmışsa da bu çalışmalarda makalemizin iddiasından farklı sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır. Dış ve iç duyular hakkında Semerkandî’nin görüşlerine yer vermeden önce kelâm âlimlerinin iki duyu türüne yaklaşımları belirlenecektir. Çünkü felsefe ve kelâm disiplinlerinin birbiri ile etkileşimini göstermesi bakımından -her iki düşünce geleneğinin bu mevzuya yaklaşımı oldukça açık olduğundan- iç duyuların varlığı tartışması önem taşımaktadır. Bu nedenle ilk olarak kelâm geleneğinin iç duyuları nasıl ele aldığı incelenecektir. Ardından Semerkandî özelinde dış duyular olarak adlandırılan beş duyu organının özeliklerine temas edilecek ve bunların işlevlerini nasıl yerine getirdiği tartışılacaktır. Son bölümde ise iç duyular ve konu ile ilgili çeşitli problemler üzerinde durulacaktır.Öğe The problem of superiority of language deviations in terms of literary value: poetic necessity in the period of jahiliyah(Cumhuriyet Univ, 2021) Cengiz, MehdiStandard language, which follows rules of dictionary and grammar, undergoes various changes when it is the subject of literature, especially poetry. These changes, called linguistic deviation, are due to the poet's expression of his feelings and thoughts by forcing the possibilities of language. In this direction, language deviations can be defined as the dispositions where the author goes out of the standard language, as in the examples of changes in the pronunciation (savt), form (sarf) or spelling (kitabet) of the words, the derivation of new words that are not used in the language (irtical) and the deterioration of the syntax (nahv). According to many literary critics such as Ibn Hisham al-Ansari (d. 761/1360) and 'Abd al-Qadir al-Baghdadi (d. 1093/1682), this language used by Arab poets who were not influenced by foreign languages, namely the Cahili, Muhadram and Islami poets (kudema), was acceptable and it is considered as daruratus-si'riyye (poetry necessities). In this context, deviations that do not comply with the standard language are tried to be explained with dialect differences, different variants of the couplet or various interpretations. However, some scholars such as Ibn Faris (d. 395/1004) and Abu al-Hasan al-Jurjani (d. 392/1001-1002) argue that these usages are lahn (linguistic mistakes). According to these names, it is not correct to explain the poets' use, which are contrary to the standard language rules, with excessive interpretations (takalluf). Assuming that linguistic deviations are lahn, they cannot represent a superiority in terms of literary value, but when considered as a necessity, they represent a superiority within the framework of certain criteria. But any specific criteria have been determined before about which linguistic deviations represent the superiority. Therefore, in our study, the theories put forward about the accuracy of linguistic deviations that exceed the standard language rules will be examined and the necessary criteria for them to represent a superiority will be determined. In this direction, the difference in meaning and form that this deviation adds to the expression becomes important. If the language deviation, which is contrary to the standard sentence structure, does not comply with the language rules in any aspect and does not add any superiority to the poem in terms of meaning and form, it does not seem possible for such uses to represent a more fluent and persuasive language (al-Balagha). However, the language deviation reveals a new meaning or form that is not found in the standard expression, and if this usage complies with the standard language rules, it represents a more eloquently language. The degree of violation of the purity and perfection of language (fasaha) of a statement is related to the violation of qiyas (analogy?) and grammatical incongruity mentioned in the rhetoric books. The contravention of common language rules of these uses, which are not considered fasih varies. As a matter of fact, some of these were seen as minor mistakes that could be ignored, while others were considered as major mistakes. For this purpose, a conceptual framework about linguistic deviations is drawn at the introduction of the article, and the literary theories on the subject are examined in the first chapter. In the second part, it is argued that linguistic deviations represent a superiority depending on certain criteria by giving examples from the poems of the period of jahiliyah.Öğe The problem of the epistemological value of revelational evidence according to shams al-dīn Al-Samarqandī(2022) Cengiz, Mehdi; Uluyurt, ZelihaShams al-D?n al-Samarqand? (d. 722/1322) influenced the philosophy and kal?m traditions with his works. How to understand the religious texts is one of the main research subjects of these disciplines, and al-Samarqand? debated this issue by using the arguments of the Ash‘ar? theologian Fakhr al-D?n al-R?z? (d. 606/1210) without mentioning his name, arguing that rational proofs express definite knowledge when interpreting the revelational attributes of God (e.g., His hands and face) while revelational proofs indicate supposition (Ûann). Al-Samarqand? also explained how revelational evidence has been exposed to probable errors while transferring grammar (nahw) rules to the present day in addition to the different linguistic possibilities such as metaphor, homonymy, and transference of meaning (naql al-lugha). al-Samarqand? further developed al-R?z?’s theory of the presumptiveness of revelational evidence to reveal how presumptions and literal proofs are indicative of definiteness. This article focuses on the epistemological value of revelational evidence according to al-Samarqand?, as well as identifying the thinkers who had influenced him regarding this issue and determining his original ideas on the subject. The article’s introduction will examine the revelational proofs and forms of signification in al-Samarqand?’s system. Afterward, the article will discuss the disputes about the value of revelational evidence, followed by the epistemic value revelational evidence expresses according to al-Samarqand?.Öğe Şemseddin es-Semerkandî’de bilginin tanımı problemi(Tekirdağ Namık Kemal Üniversitesi, 2022) Cengiz, MehdiBilginin tanımı problemi kelâm ve felsefe geleneklerinde tartışılmış, özellikle mantık tanım teorisinin kelâm disiplinine dâhil olması ile birlikte mütekaddimûn döneminde ortaya konan tarifler sonraki dönem düşünürler tarafından tenkit edilmiştir. Temelde bilginin zarûrî mi yoksa kesbî mi olduğu sorunu etrafında şekillenen bu tartışmaya dâhil olan Şemseddin esSemerkandî (ö. 722/1322), gerek İbn Sînâ’nın el-İşârât ve’t-tenbîhât’ına yazdığı şerhte gerekse kelâm disiplini ile ilgili kaleme aldığı el-Meârif adlı eserinde tanımın çeşitleri ve özellikleri hakkında bilgi vermiştir. Ayrıca bilginin tanımlanıp tanımlanamayacağı sorununu da inceleyen Semerkandî, Fahreddin erRâzî (ö. 606/1210) gibi bilginin anlamının çok açık olduğunu öne sürmüştür. Bu çerçevede İbn Sînâ (ö. 428/1037) özelinde Meşşâî geleneğin ortaya koyduğu bilgi tanımını eleştiren Semerkandî, bilginin varlıksal ve yokluksal tanımlarını belirleyip bunları tenkit etmiştir. Bu çalışma İbn Sînâ’nın temellerini kurduğu ideal tanım nazariyesinin Semerkandî tarafından nasıl ele alındığını ve bunun üzerinden Semerkandî’ye göre bilginin tanımı problemini konu edinmektedir. Ayrıca bu makale ile Semerkandî’nin bilgiyi tanımlamadığı öne sürülmüştür. Bu doğrultuda makalenin girişinde Semerkandî öncesi kelâm geleneğinde bilginin tanımı tartışmalarına ve konunun taraflarına yer verilmiştir. Ardından Semerkandî’ye göre ideal tanımın özelliklerinin belirlendiği bu makalede onun bilgiyi tanımlayıp tanımlamadığı da incelenmiştir.Öğe Şemseddîn es-Semerkandî’nin epistemolojisinde kesin bilginin kaynakları(Aksaray Üniversitesi İslami İlimler Fakültesi, 2022) Cengiz, MehdiBilginin mahiyetinin ne olduğu ve kesinliğe nasıl ulaşılacağı sorusu kelâm ve felsefe disiplini ile meşgul olan âlimlerin zihnini meşgul etmiştir. Bu doğrultuda bilginin tanımı ve çeşitleri hakkında pek çok teori öne sürülmüştür. Özellikle kesin bilgiye nasıl ulaşılacağı sorusuna cevap arayan düşünürler, zihinde oluşan suretleri, vakıaya mutabık olup olmama durumlarını dikkate alarak tasnif etmiştir. İlgili taksimlerin öğeleri, taşıdıkları doğruluk ve kesinlik nitelikleri itibari ile cehaletten başlayıp ilme kadar uzanmaktadır. Felsefî kabulleri kelâm disiplini ile ilişkilendiren ve yazdığı kelâm kitaplarında felsefî muhtevayı yansıtan Şemseddîn es-Semerkandî (ö. 722/1322) kesin bilginin çeşitlerini farklı eserlerinde tartışmaktadır. Bu çalışma kesin bilginin kaynakları konusunda Semerkandî’nin, -yer yer çeşitli revizeler yapsa da- İbn Sînâ’dan (ö. 428/1037) etkilendiğini öne sürmektedir. Fakat Semerkandî, semiyyât bahislerini tartışırken mütevâtirâtın kesin bilgiye ulaşmak için yeterli olmadığını ancak karineler ile katiyete ulaşılabileceğini iddia ederek İbn Sînâcı gelenekten ayrılmıştır. Bunun yanında Semerkandî’nin bilgi anlayışının kendine özgü yönlerine dikkat çeken bu makalede ona göre doğruluk değeri açısından önermeler incelenip kesin bilgi anlamındaki ilmin kaynakları tartışılacaktır.Öğe The claims for symbolic expressions in al-Šughrā’ī’s Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam(Istanbul 29 Mayis University - ISAM, TDV Centre for Islamic Studies, 2021) Cengiz, MehdiAbū Ismā‘īl al-Šughrā’ī’s (d. 515/1121) ode, titled Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam, has received considerable interest by scholars, and has been the subject of discussion in various literary circles. Because odes in classical Arabic poetry were named after their rhyming letters, al-Šughrā’ī’s ode gained fame with the title Lāmiyya. “‘Ajam” (non-Arab) in Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam was related to the fact that al-Šughrā’ī was born in Isfahan where Persians were living. Al-Šughrā’ī states in the beginning of his Dīwān (collection of poetry) that the ode’s theme is based on personal experience. Thus, it is necessary to understand the poet’s life in order to accurately interpret the ode. Serving in the Seljukid bureaucratic offices, al-Šughrā’ī reached as high as the position of chancellor, the most powerful person after vizier in the bureaucracy. While al-Šughrā’ī was expecting to rise to the post of vizierate, he lost his chancellor position after becoming subject to false accusations by his rivals. After he was dismissed from his position in Baghdad, he settled in Isfahan and composed Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam under these stressful conditions. A literary work is interpreted by explaining the hidden meanings in the text. As the words are interpreted proportional to the skills of the reader, a literary work represents a unity of meanings made of various layers. The most important element that enables the reader to identify multiple layers of meanings is its invocations of symbolic expressions. Once it is accepted that a work includes symbolic expressions, it gains another layer of meaning beyond its literal meaning. In this context, al-Šughrā’ī’s ode Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam provides abundant material for both literal and symbolic interpretation. Dividing Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam into sections by its subjects will enable us to see its poetic theme and the symbolic meanings and functions of the ode’s preamble. At the beginning of the ode, al-Šughrā’ī boasts about his honor and addresses his departure from Baghdad, complaining about the negative effects caused by his leaving. Following this section, the poet details the journey he embarked on towards his beloved and ends the ode by talking about his resistance to harsh conditions as well as the connection between his aims and success. Examining his life and Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam, one can understand that al-Šughrā’ī’s ambition to reach higher positions inspired the ode. Considering the fact that he composed the ode at a time when he was dismissed from the position for composing royal letters, one can say that al-Šughrā’ī’s dismissal and his desire to restore his losses inspired the writing of the poem. In this framework, the poet’s description of his journey toward his beloved between the 10th and 29th couplets does not fit well with the connection between his life and the poem’s sections. Most classical commentators preferred to focus on the meanings of the words in couplets, their lexicographical and syntactical features, and to analyze the sentences in respect to the field of rhetoric, the couplets’ meanings, and the claims of plagiarism for certain lines rather than examining the ode’s semantic unity and symbolic expressions in the couplets. Some classical commentators did not pay attention to the fact that, unlike the classical form of odes, al-Šughrā’ī did not mention the preamble at the introduction while he was talking about the events that occurred in his life and that he held the harmony between the ode’s section through symbolic expressions. In this framework, Abū Jum‘a argued that certain symbols were used in the ode Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam. According to this argument, female names mentioned in the classical Arabic poetry did not correspond to real personalities but were rather symbolic representations. For example, the most frequently mentioned names in classical Arabic odes, such as Salma and Laila were accepted not as real personalities, but rather help to meet the poetic meter. In this context, it would be fitting to mention the views of literary men on the identity of a woman’s name Su‘ād in Ka‘b b. Zuhayr’s ode recited to the Prophet. Some literary critics considered that Su‘ād was Ka‘b b. Zuhayr’s wife and some others thought it to be a woman he loved. Some critics also argued that it was an imaginary woman. Therefore, Abū Jum‘a argued that the woman mentioned in the preamble of Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam was not a real person, but the poet’s medium of alluding to his dismissal from the vizieral position. In the modern period, ‘Ali Jawād al-Šāhir, who studied Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam’s semantic unity, remarked on the question of unity in the ode. Al-Šāhir viewed no connection between al-Šughrā’ī’s life and the ode’s section of ghazal, claiming that al-Šughrā’ī added this section to the ode in order to support his argument. According to him, this was because of the fact that while the ghazal section stood at the beginning in the classical forms of ode, it is placed in the middle of Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam. This article aims to explicate the symbolic expressions in Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam. For this, it will examine first the life of al-Šughrā’ī, which was closely connected to the symbolism in the ode, and his Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam; then it will discuss the arguments related to the existence of symbolic expressions. In the conclusion, it will argue that Lāmiyyat al-‘Ajam can be understood through symbols.
